Chapter II (Continue) Pages: 33-39

The jealousy against standing armies manifested by Congress since the beginning of the Revolution, a jealousy so studiously fostered as to wring from Washington the reluctant acknowledgment that "it is our policy to be prejudiced against them in time of war" (178) bore fruit in the reduction of the Continental forces, which took place on January 1, 1781. (179) The failure to provide pay, clothing and often food, largely attributable to the unwillingness of Congress to comprehend military necessities owing to its fear of "militarism", took a form that the legislators had not contemplated.

The mutiny of the Connecticut regiments in the preceding May (180) was caused by starvation; (181) equally well justified were the complaints which culminated in an open mutiny of the Pennsylvania line (182) at Morristown on January first. In spite of the efforts to restore order made by their officers several of whom were killed or wounded in the attempt, the mutineers, (183) under the command of their non-commissioned officers, started for Princeton next day, with the avowed determination of marching to Philadelphia to obtain a redress of their grievances, their demands being for clothing, the residue of their bounty and the full arrears of their pay. Congress, in a panic lest the remainder of the army should become similarly disaffected, dispatched a committee to make terms with the malcontents. The conditions proposed (184) were accepted substantially in the form offered (185) and were tantamount to an absolute capitulation of the civil authority, not to the Army, but to a band of mutineers. (186) A similar uprising on the part of the New Jersey troops toward the end of the month (187) was, however, suppressed with a strong hand. (188) These mutinies, regrettable as they were owing to the impairment of discipline and disregard of authority, in nowise affected the loyalty of the troops. Their revolt was against unbearable conditions* and contained many of the elements of lawful revolution to justify it on the ground that the Government had failed totally in its duty to its defenders. (189)

The opening of the year did not presage success to the American cause. Washington's army was reduced to about 5,000 effective men, the number of enlistments was woefully small, the French fleet was closely blockaded in Newport, the Indians were becoming very troublesome in western New York and on the Canadian frontier, the American navy had practically disappeared, the British in New York were a constant menace (190) and the scarcity of money prevented full advantage being taken of the presence of the allied forces. The prospect was anything but encouraging.

The principal interest centers in the southern theatre of war (191) where Cornwallis, (192) deeming an invasion of North Carolina unwise so long as the Americans threatened both of his flanks, determined to defeat Morgan and Greene in detail. On January 1st he sent Tarleton to pursue Morgan and to drive him across the Broad River.

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unbearable conditions* On February 2, 1781, Lafayette wrote from New Windsor to the Marquise:

"That only proves that human patience has its limits, and, as no European army would suffer the tenth part of it, that it requires citizens to endure nakedness, hunger, toil, and the absolute want of pay which constitute the condition of our soldiers, the hardiest, I believe, and the most patient that there are in the world."__Memoires, correspondence et manuscripts du General Lafayette, I, p. 408.
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Sixteen days later they met at Cowpens, (193) where the American, who understood from past experience how to handle his militia,* inflicted a crushing defeat on the British. (194) Tarleton fell back and joined Cornwallis next day but, notwithstanding a re-enforcement, (195) the latter permitted Morgan to escape, whereupon he turned his attention to General Greene's sorry force, (196) and a series of maneuvers and skirmishes ensued, lasting for nearly two months without decisive action.

Meanwhile Benedict Arnold with a force of 1,600 men had sailed from New York (197) and, landing at Westover on the James River on January 4th, marched on Richmond and burned as much of the city as time permitted but, threatened by the troops under Baron von Steuben at Petersburg, beat a hasty retreat to Portsmouth which he proceeded to fortify. (198)

On March 12th, General Greene, having been joined by considerable re-enforcements, (199) determined to engage Cornwallis.

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his militia* "On a slight eminence Morgan posted a battalion of Maryland regulars, their right prolonged by two companies of a Virginia militia under Majors Triplett and Tate, the extreme left being formed by 150 Georgia militia under Captain Beatty. One hundred and fifty yards in front were 270 militia in open order under Colonel Pickens, preceded at about the same distance by a picked force of 150 men under Majors Cunningham and McDowell. Within 6 miles, the Broad River ran round Morgan's left and parallel to his rear, so that there was no possibility of escape in the event of defeat.

Morgan's injunction to his militia was: "Just hold up your heads, boys___three fires and you are free." He thus apologizes for his choice of position:

"I would not have a swamp in view of my militia on any consideration; they would have made for it, and nothing could have detained them from it. And as to covering my wings, I knew my adversary, and was perfectly sure I should have nothing but downright fighting. As to retreat, it was the very thing I wished to cut off all hope of. I would have thanked Tarleton had he surrounded me with his cavalry. It would have thanked Tarleton had he surrounded me with his cavalry. It would have been better than placing my own men in the rear to shoot down those who broke from the ranks. When men are forced to fight, they will sell their lives dearly; and I knew that the dread of Tarleton's cavalry would give due weight to the protection of my bayonets, and keep my troops from breaking as Buford's regiment did. Had I crossed the river, one-half of the militia would immediately have abandoned me."__Carrington, p.543.

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On the 15th the battle was joined at Guilford Court House, where the British (200) fought superbly (201) and won a bloody victory. (202) Although some of the American militia ran away,* it proved so costly (203) as to nullify Cornwallis' success and to cause Fox to exclaim in the House of Commons that "another such victory would ruin the British army." (204) Greene then proceeded to move directly against his adversary's posts in South Carolina but, after capturing one of the most important, (205) was attacked by Lord Rawdon at Hobkirk's Hill (206) on April 25th and again defeated, (207) notwithstanding his superiority in numbers. (208) This British success was of little avail however, (209) for Rawdon was obliged to evacuate Camden, three forts fell in quick succession to the Americans, (210) and on June 5th Augusta surrendered after a siege of seven weeks. (211) A fortnight later General Greene, who had invested Ninety-Six, was compelled to raise the siege (212) and to withdraw northward but, learning that Rawdon had abandoned the place and divided his forces so as to cover Charleston, marched his troops to the High Hills of the Santee in order to rest them during the intense heat of the summer. The subsequent operations were little more than partisan skirmishes but were kept up unceasingly and with the utmost bitterness until late in August when Greene, considerably re-enforced, (213) resumed the offensive, (214)

On September 8th was fought the battle of Eutaw Springs, where Greene suffered another defeat. (215) A series of minor engagements ensued, but the armies did not meet again, and the Southern campaign terminated with the British still in possession of Charleston.
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American militia ran away, * The North Carolina militia under Generals Butler and Eaton, and the 2d Maryland regiment under Lieut.-Colonel Ford.__Greene, III, pp. 196-197; Carrington, ibid.; Lossing, II, pp. 609-612; Marshall, IV, pp. 370 and 373.

Trevelyan says, I (Part II), p. 183, footnote, that "as soon as Lord Cornwallis sent his people forward, the militia broke and ran, and never stopped retreating until (to use the words of their disgusted General) they had gone home to kiss their wives and sweethearts." Also Greene, III, p.205.
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Meanwhile, Cornwallis had decided, almost immediately after the battle of Guilford Court House, to join General Phillips (216) and, by occupying Virginia and controlling the Chesapeake, to intercept all communication with the Allies and thus effectually reduce the South to submission. (2117) On April 25th he started from Wilmington, North Carolina, reaching Petersburg, Virginia, within a month, (218) but he found himself opposed by a combined force of regulars and militia under the Marquis de Lafayette, (219) who subsequently assumed command of all the American troops in Virginia. (220) This general having prevented the capture of Richmond, (221) rallied Wayne (222) to him and for three months the respective forces indulged in maneuvering and skirmishing without any notable encounter save at Jamestown. (223)

In the North Washington and Rochambeau had conferred at Wethersfield, Connecticut, on May 22nd and a junction of the allied armies was agreed upon as a preliminary to an attack upon New York, (224) but the operation was not actually undertaken in force until nearly two months later. (225)

On July 14th Washington received a letter from the Comte de Grasse announcing his intention to sail from Saint Domingo on August 3rd for the Chesapeake. (226) In view of this information it was decided to abandon the attack on New York, * and on August 21st the allied army was set in motion for Virginia. The following day Cornwallis concentrated his entire command (227) at Yorktown and on the 30th the fleet under de Grasse reached the Chesapeake, (228) 3,200 French troops being landed at Jamestown Island on September 3rd and Williamsburg occupied by the joint forces of the Comte de Saint-Simon and Lafayette two days subsequently.

Meanwhile the British had made desperate efforts to intercept the two French fleets but__luckily for the allies__ their plans had miscarried. (229)
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the attack on New York * The supreme moment of Washington's military career had come, the moment for realizing a conception which had nothing of a Fabian character about it, for it was a conception of the same order as those in which Caesar and Napoleon dealt. He decided at once to transfer his army to Virginia and overwhelm Cornwallis."__Fiske, II, p.275

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On September 5th, Admiral Graves entered the Chesapeake, but de Grasse, slipping out, drew him off to the southward and maneuvered with such skill that for five days the English were unable to bring on a decisive action. De Grasse then put back into the bay and found the squadron under de Barras safely at anchor. (230) He was followed by Graves but that Admiral, finding himself completely outnumbered, renounced his attempts and set sail for New York. (231)

On the 14th Washington and Rochambeau reached Lafayette's headquarters at Williamsburg, where the entire Allied armies were concentrated eleven days later, (232) their march in nowise slackened by Clinton's counterstroke in the shape of an invasion of Connecticut conducted by Benedict Arnold, (233) which accomplished nothing except the destruction of New London. (234) On September 28th the Allied armies advanced to a position within two miles of Yorktown and on the following day began the investment of the place. A week later the siege guns began their work with such effect that on October 17th Cornwallis offered to capitulate, and on the 19th his 8,000 men (235) defiled between the French and American armies to the tune of "The World Turned Upside Down," (236) surrendered their colors and laid down their arms. (237) This crowning success came none too soon, for on that memorable day Clinton sailed from New York with a powerful fleet and 7,000 of his best troops to relieve Cornwallis, arriving at the mouth of the Chesapeake five days later, only to have to turn back from his fruitless mission. (238)

Without the timely assistance of Rochambeau, de Grasse and de Barras, it is doubtful that the struggling colonies would ever have achieved their independence. As the war progressed the response to the military necessities diminished, (239) and in 1781 not 30,000 troops were furnished by the States, (240) whereas at the most critical moment the British had over 38,000 effective men. (241) The service thus rendered by France was incalculable. (242)

Although the war was virtually terminated with the surrender of Cornwallis, the cessation of arms did not officially occur until fourteen months later, (243) so that Washington wisely prepared for further operations (244) but without the necessary troops being forthcoming. (245) On April 19, 1783, Washington, following in the footsteps of Congress, (246) proclaimed the cessation of hostilities, (247) on September 3rd the definitive treaty of peace was signed at Paris, (248) on November 2nd, he delivered his farewell address to the army (249) which was disbanded next day, (250) and on December 23rd he resigned his commission. (251)

FOOTNOTES ON CHAPTER II THE WAR OF THE REVOLUTION: PAGES: 33-39 THE CAMPAIGN OF 1781

178. Washington, in writing to John Banister on April 21, 1778, said: "There are one or two points more, upon which I will add an observation or two. The first is, the indecision of Congress and the delay used in coming to determinations on matters referred to them...The other point is, the jealousy which Congress unhappily entertains of the army, and which, if reports are right, some members labor to establish. You may be assured, there is nothing more injurious, or more unfounded. This jealousy stands upon the commonly received opinion, which under proper limitations is certainly true, that standing armies are dangerous to a State. The prejudices in other countries have only gone to them in time of peace, and these from their not having in general cases any of the ties, the concerns, or interests of citizens, or any other dependence, than what flowed from their military employ; in short, from their being mercenaries, hirelings. It is our policy to be prejudiced against them in time of war; though they are citizens, having all the ties and interests of citizens, and in most cases property totally unconnected with the military line.__Sparks, V, p. 328.

179. In conformity with the Congressional resolution of October 3, 1780. See above, p.27 and footnote 135.

180. See p. 33.

181. "The winter brought not much relaxation from toil, and none from suffering. The soldiers were perpetually on the point of starvation, were often entirely without food, were exposed, without proper clothing, to the rigors of winter; and had now served almost twelve months without pay.

"This situation was common to the whole army, whether in the northern or southern service; and had been of such long continuance, that scarcely the hope of a change could be indulged." John Marshall, Life of George Washington, IV, p. 392.

182. Six regiments.

183. 1,300 men and six guns.

184. "1. To discharge all those, who had enlisted indefinitely for three years, or during the war; the fact to be inquired into by three commissioners to be appointed by the executive, and to be ascertained, where the original enlistment could not be produced, by the oath of the soldier.
2. To give immediate certificates for the depreciation of their pay, and to settle arrearages as soon as circumstances would admit.
3. To furnish them immediately with certain specified articles of clothing, which were greatly wanted."__Sparks, VII, p. 359, footnote.

185.The mutineers stipulated that they should appoint three additional commissioners to determine, in conjunction with the others, what soldiers were to be discharged.

186. In punishment, Congress disbanded the Pennsylvania troops, and the six regiments which that State was required to furnish were not assembled before March, 1781.

Accounts of this mutiny are given by Sparks, VII, pp. 359-387; Fiske, II, pp. 240-242; Carrington, pp. 537-538; Upton, pp. 55-5.

187. January 24th to 28th, 1781.

188. Sparks, VII, pp. 380-382, 385-388, 560-566; Fiske, II, pp. 242-243;; Upton, p.56.

189. Carrington, p. 538.

190. On December 1, 1780, Clinton had 17,729 effective troops in New York according to the original returns in the British Record Office.

191. The slenderness of Washington's force, the blockade of the French at Newport and the Non-arrival of their second division compelled the allies to remain on the defensive in the north. On the other hand, as Carrington points out (p. 535), "The French army in America sustained an important relation to this period. It prevented General Clinton from risking the offensive, and tot he same extent lessened the zeal of the New England people in the preparation for troops for the new campaign, because the urgency of their employment did not appear immediate and absolute."

192. Who had wintered at Winnsborough (see above, p. 32). According to official returns, his force on January 15, 1781, numbered 3,224.

193. "Tarleton's entire force consisted of about eleven hundred well-disciplined men, and in every particular he had the advantage of Morgan."__Lossing, II, p. 638.

194. Cornwallis reported a loss of 100 killed and 529 captured, but omits mention of his wounded. In addition Tarleton lost 2 colors, 2 guns, 35 wagons, 100 horse, and 800 muskets. The American casualties were confined to 12 killed and 60 wounded. __Carrington. p. 545; Lossing, II, p.642.

195. General Leslie with 1,100 men from Charleston joined him on January 18th and 19th.

196. Including Morgan's command, it numbered 1,703 men. In a letter to Sumter, dated January 15, 1781, General Greene remarked that "More than half our members are in a manner naked; so much so that we can not put them on the least kind of duty. Indeed there is a great number that have not a rag of clothes on them except a little piece of blanket, in the Indian form, around their waists."

197. On December 19, 1780 Lieutenant-Colonels Simcoe and Dundas were attached to the expedition, as Clinton did not place any too much reliance on Arnold.

198. Carrington, pp. 548-549; Lossing, II, pp. 433-436.

199. His army then consisted of 4,004 men, of which 1,490 were regular infantry and 161 regular cavalry.__Carrington, p.556.

200. Numbering "twenty-four hundred men, chiefly veterans."__Lossing, II, p. 606.

201. The consensus of opinion among writers is that the British never fought more splendidly than at Guilford Court House. Compare Stedman, II, pp. 385-386; Marshall, IV, p. 379.

202. Greene, III, pp. 196-205; Stedman, II, 375-385; Carrington, pp. 556-564; Lossing, II, pp. 606-612.

203. The British loss was 544 killed and wounded, Cornwallis and Leslie being the only general officers not wounded. The total American casualties were 1,311. The 921 missing in Greene's force were generally accounted for as having fled to their homes.__Carrington, pp. 562-564; Lossing, II, pp. 609-612. Greene, III, p. 205, places the total casualties at 1,255.

204. Carrington, p. 564

205. Fort Watson, on the Santee River, capitulated to lee and Marion on April 23rd.

206. Near Camden, South Carolina.

207. Carrington, pp. 570-574; Lossing, II, pp. 678-680.

208. Lossing estimated Greene's forces as "about fifteen hundred men"; Carrington gives it as 1,446. Both agree in placing Rasdon's command at "about 900 men." The American casualties were 271, the British, 258.

209. Stedman, II, p. 401.

210. Sumter occupied Orangeburg on May 11th; Fort Mott surrendered to Lee and Marion on the 12th; and Lee reduced Granby on the 15th.

211. Carrington, p. 574.

212. On June 21st.

213. To about 2,600 men.

214. On August 22nd.

215. Lossing, II, pp. 700-704; Carrington, pp. 578-582. The latter says that "the American army was superior in numbers, and was well-officered." According to Strait, p.227, Greene had 2,000 men, and lost 555 in killed, wounded and missing.

The casualties of the British__then commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel Stuart, who had succeeded Lord Rawdon__were "85 killed, 70 wounded, and 538 made prisoners."

216. This officer had arrived in the Chesapeake on March 26th with 2,000 troops from New York and instructions from Clinton to report to Cornwallis.

217. Carrington, p. 565.

218. On May 20th. There he made his junction with Phillips' force which had arrived on the 8th but, as this general had died on the 13th, the command of his troops had been assumed for the interim by Arnold. Cornwallis brought 1,435 men with him, Arnold had 1,553 of his own, and 2,116 formerly under Phillips, and on May 26, Leslie joined him with 2,278 from Portsmouth and Norfolk, thus making the total force under Cornwallis 7,382.

219. 1,200 Pennsylvania Continentals and 1,000 militia under Baron von Steuben and General Muhlenberg__Muhlenberg, Life of Major General Peter Muhlenberg, pp. 246 and 407.

220. On February 20th Lafayette was sent from the Hudson with part of the Pennsylvania line which had mutinied (see page 33) to capture Benedict Arnold. On April 29th he reached Richmond, and on May 18th he received orders to assume command in Virginia.

221. On April 19th, Lieut.-Colonel Simcoe with the Queen's Rangers landed at Burwell's Ferry and on the 20th attacked Williamsburg. The Virginia militia posted at both places fled ignominiously.__Carrington, p. 589; Lossing, II, p. 543; Simcoe's Journal, pp. 189-192; Tower, The Marquis de La Fayette in the American revolution, II, p-291.

222. Whose command consisted of about 800 Pennsylvania Continentals and some militia.

223. On July 6th.

224. Washington's diary and memorandum on the conference. _ Sparks, VIII, pp. 54, 517-519.

225. July 21st to 23rd. On July 2nd and 3rd a demonstration had been made against New York by General Lincoln, supported by Washington. On the 6th Rochambeau's army effected its junction with the Americans.

226. Washington's diary.__Sparks, VIII, p. 134.

227. On August 1st, Cornwallis had 9,433 troops in Virginia; on September 1st, 8,885, according to the original returns in the British Record Office.

228. His fleet consisted of 28 ships of the line, besides frigates and transports.

229. When Admiral Rodney, who commanded the British naval forces in the West Indies, heard of de Grasse's proposed movement, he promptly sent Admiral Sir Samuel Hood with 14 ships of the line to intercept him. Hood outsailed the French, reached the Chesapeake three days before de Grasse's arrival, looked into Delaware Bay and reached New York on August 28th. Admiral Graves, his superior had only 5 ships fit for service, but, assuming command of the combined fleet, sailed from New York on August 31st, hoping to intercept Admiral Comte de Barras, who, he had been informed, had started from Newport for the Chesapeake on the 27th.

230. This Admiral had 7 ships of the line and 14 transports carrying 800 marines under General de Choisy, as well as siege guns and stores of utmost importance to the Allies. De Barras only arrived on September 10th.

231. Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, pp. 388-392. Mahan pertinently remarks (p. 392) that "On the French side De Grasse must be credited with a degree of energy, foresight, and determination surprising in view of his failures at other times."

232. The first troops arrived on the 18th. The total force was 12,000 regulars and militia in excess of 4,000.

233. About 2,000 men. It left New York on September 4th.

234. September 6th.

235. Officers and men, 7,073, to which were added 900 officers and sailors, a total of 7,973, according to the statement of the commissary of prisoners based on the original muster rolls.

236. Fiske, II, p. 283.

237. Among the trophies were 75 brass guns, 69 iron guns, 18 German and 6 British regimental standards, a military chest containing L2,113, 4 ships, 30 transports, 15 galleys and many smaller vessels.

238. Just as he did when he endeavored to relieve Bourgoyne in 1777. See above, footnote 70.

239. See above, pages 19, 21-25, 27, 34.

240. The quotas required of the States for 1781 amounted to 33,408 men. Of these only 13, 292 Continentals and 7,298 militia, a total of 20,590, were furnished. In addition to the above, 8,750 militia were employed, making a grand total of 29,340.__American State Papers, I, pp. 14-19; Upton, p.57.

241. Original returns in the British Record Office.

242. Fiske, II, p. 284.

243. January 20, 1783, when the preliminaries of peace between Great Britain, France, and Spain were signed at Versailles, and between Great Britain and the United States at Paris.

Preliminary articles between England and the United States had previously been signed at Paris on November 30th.

244. King George vowed that he would not give up Georgia or the cities of Charleston and New York. Lord Rockingham, however, brought such pressure to bear that Savannah was evacuated on July 11, 1782, and Charleston on December 14th, New York, on the other hand, was retained by the British until November 25, 1783.

245. In 1782, 33,408 troops were required of the States and 18,006 furnished; in 1783 out of 33,808 only 13,477 were supplied.__American State Papers, I, pp. 14-19; Upton, p.58.

246. Which had officially announced a cessation of arms on April 11th.

247. Sparks, VIII, Appendix XIII.

248. Lodge, Story of the Revolution, Appendix II, pp. 583-588.

249. Sparks, VIII, pp. 491-496.

250. Upton, p. 64; Fiske, The Critical Period of American History, p.53.

251. Fiske, p. 53; Sparks, VIII, pp. 504-505.